西雅圖凹凸鏡

（本文同步刊登於低碳生活部落格）

前不久，根據西雅圖市政府發佈的消息，西雅圖事實上在 2005年已經達到了京都議定書規定的溫室氣體減量目標。

        在環境保護的課題上，西雅圖一直是美國其中較為前進的城市，尤其是近來在全球暖化的威脅下，相關行動更為積極。在布希政府拒絕簽署京都議定書之後，現任西雅圖市長登高一呼，發動全美城市主動遵守京都議定書來對抗全球暖化。

         前不久，根據西雅圖市政府發佈的消息，西雅圖事實上在 2005年已經達到了京都議定書規定的溫室氣體減量目標。根據京都議定書，簽署的各國必須漸次減低溫室氣體排放量，讓2012年的排放量比1990年的水準低七個百分點，而市政府提供的資料顯示，西雅圖2005的溫室氣體排放量比1990的水準要低了八個百分點。西雅圖在溫室氣體減量上的努力，已經達到了一個里程碑，領先眾多其他美國城市。

         然而，到達到京都議定書的里程碑，卻絕不代表西雅圖在對抗氣候暖化這場戰役中的成功。西雅圖還有許多棘手的問題要解決，尤其是交通運輸的排放量與1990比起來不減反增，民眾的交通仍然大量倚靠私家汽車而非大眾運輸系統。那麼為什麼西雅圖能夠相對快速地到達京都議定書的標準？到底是西雅圖相關減量政策真的很「成功」，還是京都議定書的標準過於寬鬆？

         數字是人們設立目標、訂定行動的方便媒介，但用數字作為衡量事物的絕對標準卻是危險的，因為，數字雖然會說話，但數字也會騙人。溫室氣體排放量到底是怎麼計算的？方程式中到底考量或忽略了哪些因子？帳面上看似降低了的排放量數字，是不是代表城市活動對氣候影響真的減少了？這些問題的答案大有商榷的餘地；此外，當溫室氣體排放量減到一定的水準，真的就表示人類成功地反轉氣候暖化的趨勢呢嗎？這是一個更大的問號。

    人類當前所面對的不永續挑戰不只是溫室氣體減量的問題，而設定某個減量里程碑作為目標，容易讓大眾以為目標的到達就等同於任務成功，尤其是當所有的焦點和工作都集中在為「達到溫室氣體減量」這個極為簡化標的上，減量手段的合理性以及背後產生的其他環境、社會衝擊往往被忽略了。

         西雅圖「成功」的溫室氣體減量經驗，可以幫助我們思考以上討論的迷思。帳面上，西雅圖溫室氣體排放量所以能夠比其他城市來的低，其中一個關鍵性的因素在於這個城市的供電系統並非來自石化燃料，而完全來自被廣泛但草率定義為「乾淨能源」的水力發電。負責西雅圖城市供電的西雅圖電力公司（Seattle City Light）在華盛頓州擁有許多水庫，並自1990年之後就就完全仰賴水力發電，同時也利用碳交易來達到帳面上所謂的「碳中和」(Carbon Neural)，該公司因此成為全美第一個達到碳中和的電力公司。

    水力發電真的「乾淨」嗎？一點也不。根據研究，大型水庫其實也排放為數不少的溫室氣體，在熱帶氣候地區，水庫排放溫室氣體甚至可能比火力發電廠還要多。然而，水力發電的環境破壞和水庫的溫室氣體排放，似乎沒有被納入計算的方程式中。另外，西雅圖的溫室氣體減量中有少部分「歸功」於碳交易。也就是說，有部分的溫室氣體其實並沒有真正消失，而是透過付錢給其他國家或組織來替自己的碳排放「贖罪」後抵銷。根據市府的資料，若不納入碳交易的減量，西雅圖其實並沒有達到京都議定書的標準。

         當前，西雅圖溫室氣體排放的大宗來自交通運輸所排放的廢氣，其中又以私人汽車為最，西雅圖最棘手的問題—也是所有美國城市的共同挑戰—在於如何降低人們買車、開車的誘因。雖然西雅圖的大眾運輸系統可能遠比其他美國城市來的完備，卻遠不足夠，再加上道路四通八達、停車便利，開車仍是最佳、甚至唯一選擇；不僅如此，官僚的都市規劃思維仍然跳脫不出為私家車輛服務的思維（例如西雅圖水岸再開發的議題仍圍繞著交通流量數字打轉）；而在電視廣告十個有九個跟汽車有關的大眾文化中，交通面向的溫室氣體減量，似乎是一條漫漫長路。

    在這樣的實際情況下，西雅圖還能夠提前抵達京都議定書的里程碑，遙遙領先其他城市，反而令人為地球的前途更加佳擔憂。能夠呼風喚雨的先進國家領袖，在全球暖化的議題上必須要有更積極、更大膽的行動。

         即使達到京都議定書的里程碑不代表西雅圖的「勝利」，西雅圖的各項相關作為和精神仍是非常值得其他城市學習的。在溫室氣體減量的工作上，西雅圖多管其下，從各個環節著手，其中最重要的關鍵在於西雅圖市政府強烈的意志和領導力，訂定明確的計畫，整合公私部門一起行動。

        在交通運輸上，西雅圖致力於拓展更多的通勤選項，包括步行、腳踏車、以及大眾運輸系統。其中最值得注意的，就是這個城市在推廣自行車上的努力，西雅圖甚至有一個為期九年、經費達三億六千萬美元（約台幣一百多億）的計畫來打造更完善的自行車環境，近來，在西雅圖的街道上已經看到越來越多的自行車道和單車騎士；在地形起伏的西雅圖騎自行車其實是備極辛苦的，在這樣的地理環境下能夠讓越來越多人投入單車族行列，實在不簡單。

        在公車的能源上，西雅圖的公車系統已經全面採用生質燃油 (Biodiesel Fuel)，並大量使用不排放任何廢氣的電車（electric trolley）；同時，油電混合的公車也早已取代原本的舊車種，不但更省油，也減少約九成的溫室氣體及其他有害氣體的排放。雖然目前公車是西雅圖唯一的大眾運輸系統，不過西雅圖市政府已經在規劃及興建一條的輕軌大眾運輸系統，預計未來可以減少私家汽車運輸的需求。

         西雅圖當然也沒有忽略另一個溫室氣體排放的大宗：建築物的營造與使用。西雅圖是美國第一個規定公家建築的興建必需要符合綠建築標準的城市，並且在建築節能的規範上特別嚴格。此外，獨棟獨院、象徵著美國夢的郊區蔓延也是西雅圖市政府面對的挑戰，郊區蔓延不但侵蝕原有的農地和綠地，大量私人車輛的長距離通勤更直接造成能源的無謂耗損和二氧化碳排放，因此，西雅圖市政府積極再開發市中心區的住宅，讓民眾可以住在離工作近的地方，另一方面，也藉由法令來限制都市外圍的無限制發展。在溫室氣體減量的課題上，西雅圖針對問題的直接或間接根源多管其下，讓這先天就擁有絕佳條件的城市成為更是適合人居的地方。

         套句咱們國父孫中山先生的話，「革命尚未成功，同志仍須努力」，在全球暖化的挑戰中，西雅圖還需要加緊努力。學者預測，未來五十年大西雅圖地區的人口會急速增長，在不可抗拒的人口成長趨勢下，如何減少的自然資源耗用、如何減少甚至修復對環境的破壞，是一個巨大的考驗。對抗氣候暖化是一場難打的仗，正因為我們要對抗的不是氣候，而是人類自己，西雅圖人很清楚，未來的工作還很艱鉅，到達京都議定書的里程碑標準沒有什麼成功可言；但是，在邁向永續未來的道路上仍遠遠落後的台灣，該向西雅圖的意志和精神學習。

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相關文章連結：

西雅圖與京都議定書： http://blog.yam.com/kueihsienl/article/7087900
對抗全球暖化，西雅圖提出具體行動方案：http://blog.yam.com/kueihsienl/article/3619578
西雅圖的十年自行車計畫：http://blog.yam.com/kueihsienl/article/6934667
建設不是硬道理—西雅圖的水岸未來：http://blog.yam.com/kueihsienl/article/10033023
對抗氣候暖化，西雅圖動起來了！ http://blog.yam.com/kueihsienl/article/12426508

相關連結：
Seattle Climate Action Now：http://www.seattlecan.org/
西雅圖市政府氣候網頁：http://www.seattle.gov/html/CITIZEN/climate.htm
西雅圖電力公司Seattle City Light: http://www.seattle.gov/light/

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以下轉載西雅圖時報的相關報導：

原文出處：http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/localnews/2003982610_kyoto30m.html

Seattle reports milestone in cutting emissions

By Warren Cornwall
Seattle Times environment reporter

Seattle is one of the first major cities to claim it has cut greenhouse-gas emissions enough to meet the targets of the international Kyoto treaty aimed at combating global warming.

The achievement, at a time when the city has enjoyed a boom in population and jobs, sets Seattle apart both from the nation as a whole and other cities that have seen greenhouse gases soar in recent years.

But keeping a lid on such emissions in the future means confronting one of the city's most intractable problems: how to get people out of their cars and driving less.

While overall greenhouse-gas emissions fell by 8 percent between 1990 and 2005 — the most recent data available — the amount attributed to transportation rose 3 percent, due largely to more gas slurped up by cars, according to a draft report issued by the city on Monday.

"This is a remarkable milestone that shows how cities can lead the way in the fight against global warming," Mayor Greg Nickels said. "But it is just the start of our work."

Although critics say trying to meet the Kyoto targets nationwide would hurt the economy without solving global warming, supporters call it a critical first step toward much deeper reductions needed to slow or even reverse the warming.

Seattle's reductions were largely the result of energy conservation by households and businesses, and changes in power production at Seattle City Light, the report said.

The announcement was a triumph for Nickels, who has made climate change a cornerstone of his administration and hosts a global-warming conference of mayors this week.

Nickels has lobbied the nation's mayors to sign a pledge promising to meet the Kyoto Protocol's target of cutting greenhouse gases to 7 percent below 1990 levels by 2012. More than 650 mayors have joined the movement, which is aimed partly at pressuring the federal government to join the international treaty.

The Bush administration has opposed the treaty, which doesn't restrict emissions from developing countries such as and that are among major sources of greenhouse gases. In 1999, the U.S. Senate voted 95-0 against the treaty.

The reductions in emissions from homes, cars and factories in Seattle can't be credited to the citywide climate-change plan, which Nickels unveiled in 2006.

The City Council first passed a resolution adopting the Kyoto goals in 2001, before Nickels took office.

Part of the cuts are due to changes in power production at Seattle City Light, which provides clean-running hydropower to homes and businesses.

"We have the good fortune of owning our own utility," said Steve Nicholas, head of the city's Office of Sustainability and Environment.

City Light says its operations now produce no net greenhouse gases. Since 1990, the utility sold its part-ownership in a coal-fired power plant in Centralia and stopped buying power from a natural-gas plant in Klamath Falls, Ore. Both plants produce greenhouse gases.

City Light also has embarked on more aggressive conservation measures and bought greenhouse-gas offsets — essentially paying someone else to stop polluting as much — to make up for emissions from sources such as its utility trucks.

Another share of the drop came from homeowners and businesses switching from fuel oil to cleaner-burning natural gas to heat buildings, something city officials attributed largely to market forces rather than city policies.

The city was helped temporarily by a drop in 2005 emissions from the two cement plants along the Duwamish River. Those plants account for almost a seventh of the city's greenhouse gases, and their emissions fell by more than 160,000 metric tons.

But that reduction could evaporate, since those plants were expected to boost production after 2005, Nicholas said.

For now, Monday's report puts Seattle ahead of other U.S. cities leading the push to curb greenhouse gases — notably Portland, which has been working on the issue since 1993.

Portland and Multnomah County have seen a gradual drop in greenhouse-gas emissions since 2000, and levels are hovering near 1990 levels.

Unlike Seattle, Portland gets power from two investor-owned utilities that generate greenhouse gases. The city also doesn't count offsets, which are controversial because some people question whether the claimed pollution reductions are real.

But Portland has shown more progress on the transportation front, where emissions are at almost the same level as 1990, and have been dropping in recent years.

Seattle has started trying to lure people from their cars. Two tax measures approved by voters in 2006 are aimed at improving bus service, bike lanes and sidewalks.

The city also has passed development rules to encourage people to move downtown, where they will drive less, said Nicholas, with the Office of Sustainability and Environment.

But Nicholas said the city will need to do more if it wants to keep greenhouse gases from creeping up, particularly as Seattle's population grows.

Outgoing City Councilman Peter Steinbrueck said Monday's report is welcome news.

But he said the city also needs to take more aggressive steps to stem the growth of car traffic.

He mentioned the proposed replacement of the Alaskan Way Viaduct with a similar structure, or an underground roadway, as an example of continued emphasis on cars.

"My concern here is that while the news is good, it shouldn't put us at ease in any way. We are working against time," he said.

Warren Cornwall: 206-464-2311 or wcornwall@seattletimes.com